Cited sources
Follow each reference back to the article that uses it. The publications and manuals linked here remain on their publishers’ websites.
A better Z′ can hide a worse measurement
1. Zhang JH, Chung TDY, Oldenburg KR. A simple statistical parameter for use in evaluation and validation of high throughput screening assays. Journal of Biomolecular Screening. 1999;4(2):67–73. DOI: 10.1177/108705719900400206. Formula also presented in reference 4, section 2.
2. Hamamatsu Photonics. Photon Counting SNR Simulator. Count Rate Linearity section and paralyzable response equation. Accessed September 24, 2026.
3. Hamamatsu Photonics. Photomultiplier Tubes: Basics and Applications, fourth edition. Printed pp. 145–147 on pulse-height discrimination, pp. 149–150 on count-rate linearity/correction, and p. 181 on over-light detection and attenuation checks; PDF pp. 158–160, 162–163 and 194.
4. Bray MA, Carpenter A. Advanced Assay Development Guidelines for Image-Based High Content Screening and Analysis. Assay Guidance Manual. July 8, 2017. Section 2, Z′ and V-factor discussions.
5. Promega. CellTiter-Glo 2.0 Assay technical manual TM403. Revised January 2023. Section 4.B, Cellular ATP Content; PDF p. 11 / printed p. 10.
6. Assay Development for Protein Kinase Enzymes. Assay Guidance Manual. Pilot Screens section. Accessed September 24, 2026.
When reading longer stops helping
1. Hamamatsu Photonics. Photon Counting SNR Simulator. Photon statistics and signal/background contributions; accessed September 24, 2026.
2. Owicki JC. Fluorescence Polarization and Anisotropy in High Throughput Screening: Perspectives and Primer. Journal of Biomolecular Screening. 2000;5:297–306.
3. Chang TC and colleagues. Microwell arrays reveal cellular heterogeneity during the clonal expansion of transformed human cells. Technology. 2015;3:163–171. Initial seeding statistics and subsequent clonal behavior in their microwell system.
4. Promega. CellTiter-Glo 2.0 Cell Viability Assay Technical Manual TM403. Revision 1/23, section 4; temperature and ATP-per-cell considerations. Worked examples in this article are constructed calculations, not measurements from this manual.